Everyone has an opinion about food. You can't go on the Internet without coming across someone's long review of a restaurant or a food stand. But, to a linguist like me, by no means are food reviews just about food. The words you use when you write a restaurant review say as much about your own psychology as they do about which dish to order. In a recent study at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon University, my team and I examined 900,000 restaurant reviews on the web of 6,500 restaurants, across seven US cities. Large-scale reading of this sort is, of course, far beyond what most readers can process. Only by using techniques from computational linguistics were we able to complete the analysis. We wrote software to automatically count the number of words, their complexity and the number of times certain words occurred, such as specific pronouns or particular nouns or adjectives.
每個人對食物都有自己的一套看法。你上網一定不可能沒看過人們對某家餐廳或某個小吃攤一長串的評論。但是，對於像我這樣的語言學家來說，美食評論絕非只是關於食物而已。你寫餐廳評論的用字所透露出的心理狀態，跟透露出該點哪道菜的資訊量是一樣多的。史丹佛大學和卡內基美隆大學最近的一項研究中，我的團隊和我調查了美國 7 個城市 6,500 家餐廳在網路上 90 萬則餐廳評論。當然，這種大規模的閱讀量遠超出大多數讀者能處理的範圍。只有使用計算語言學的技術，我們才能完成分析。我們編寫軟體來自動計算字彙的數量、它們的複雜度和特定單字出現的次數，例如特定的代名詞、特定的名詞或形容詞。
We found that when people write a "1-star" review, they use the language of trauma: precisely the same words used by people writing about a tragedy such as the death of a loved one. Like trauma victims, who tend to use the pronouns "we" or "us" to emphasize a shared sense of grief, solitary terrible reviews also reveal the same tendency. For example, they may write "we were ignored" or "they yelled at us." These reviews are not complaints about bad food or atmosphere but rather a mechanism for dealing with minor trauma caused by face-to-face interactions.
我們發現，當人們寫一篇「一星」評論時，他們使用創傷等級的語言：這就跟抒寫親人去世這樣的悲劇時所使用的詞彙一模一樣。就像身心受創的受害者往往會使用代名詞「我們」來強調集體的悲傷感，單一負評也顯示了同樣的傾向。例如，他們可能會寫「我們被忽視」或者「他們對我們大小聲」。這些評論並不是在抱怨食物難吃或氣氛差，而比較像是在處理面對面人際互動中造成的小創傷時，產生的一種心理機制。
Money also matters. Reviewers of expensive restaurants relied on multisyllabic words such as "commensurate" and "unobtrusively," and wrote long-winded reviews to present themselves as well-educated or sophisticated. They eat high-class food not only to enjoy the food but also to signal that they are high-class and have the "commensurate" language.
價錢也很重要。昂貴餐廳的評論者靠著把「相稱對搭」和「不引人注目」之類的多音節單字掛在嘴上，並寫下長篇大論的評論來顯示自己受過高等教育或見多識廣。他們吃高檔食物不僅是為了享受，也是為了表明自己是高級人士，能說「相稱對搭」的語言。
When a review of an expensive restaurant was positive, writers tended to use metaphors of sensual pleasure, such as "seductively seared foie gras," perhaps as a way to demonstrate they know how to seize the day. However, positive reviews of cheap restaurants and foods instead employed metaphors of addiction: "the chocolate in their cookies must have drugs" or "craving the pizza pretty badly right now." They talk about food as an addiction when they are feeling guilty. By putting the blame on the food, they are distancing themselves from their own "sin" of eating junk foods. In fact, women are more likely than men to use these metaphors, suggesting that they are more likely to feel the pressure caused by eating unhealthy food.
當對一家昂貴餐廳的評價是正面時，人們下筆傾向使用帶有感官愉悅的隱喻，例如「誘人的炙燒鵝肝」，也許是為了表現他們懂得如何及時行樂的一種方式。然而，對於平價餐館和食物的正面評價，反而會使用上癮的隱喻：「他們餅乾裡的巧克力肯定下了藥」或是「現在超爆想吃披薩」。當感到有罪惡感的時候，他們就會把食物說成是一種上癮。藉著把責任歸咎於食物，他們就能擺脫自己吃垃圾食物的「罪惡」。事實上，女性比男性更容易使用這類隱喻，表示她們更容易感受到不健康飲食帶來的壓力。
In another study, my student and I looked at the advertising text on the back of packets of chips. As with reviews, we found that the more expensive the chip, the fancier the language. We also found expensive chips more likely to use the language of comparison ("less fat," "best in America") or negation ("never fried," "no fluorescent orange"). In fact, chips cost 4 cents more per ounce for every additional "no" on the packet. This use of distinguishing language supports French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu's theory that upper-class taste in food has the role of "distinguishing" the rich from other classes—"We're not like those other chips."
在另一項研究中，我的學生和我檢視了洋芋片包裝袋背面的廣告文字。和餐廳評論相同，我們發現洋芋片愈貴，用字遣詞愈花俏。我們還發現昂貴的洋芋片較容易使用比較性語言（「脂肪較少」、「全美最棒」）或否定性語言（「非油炸」、「不含螢光橘色素」）。事實上，包裝上每多一個「不」字，每盎司洋芋片就多貴 4 美分。這種差異性語言的使用支持了法國社會學家 Pierre Bourdieu 的理論，即上流階層對食物的品味具有「區分」富人和其他階層的功能－－「我們與其他洋芋片不同。」
Menu language is equally instructive. In one of my studies, we computationally analyzed thousands of US menus and found we could predict prices just from the words on the menu. Again, not until we looked at the most expensive restaurants did we find the fanciest words being used. Difficult foreign words ("tonnarelli," "choclo," "bastilla," "persillade," and "oyako") are a hint of the high-educational status of the menu writer and, by extension, the customer. But we also found that expensive menus were shorter and more implicit. By contrast, the wordy menus of middle-priced restaurants were stuffed with adjectives ("fresh," "rich," "mild," "crisp," "tender," and "golden brown"), while positive but vague words such as "delicious," "tasty" and "savory" were used by the cheapest restaurants. High-status restaurants want their customers to presuppose that food will be fresh, crisp and delicious. The overuse of adjectives on middle-priced menus is thus a kind of compensation, a sign of status anxiety, and only the cheapest restaurants, in which the tastiness of the food might be in question, must overly exhibit the delicacy of their treats.
菜單語言同樣富含許多資訊。在我的一項研究中，我們用電腦分析了數千份美國菜單，發現我們僅僅從菜單上的用字就能預測價格。再一次，直到我們看到了要價最貴的餐廳，才發現最華麗的字眼被用於其中。困難的外來字（如「阿布魯佐雞蛋義大利麵」、「祕魯玉米」、「巴司蒂亞餡餅」、「歐芹蒜泥」和「親子丼」）暗示了菜單作者連帶著顧客所擁有的高教育水準。但我們也發現，昂貴的菜單用字較精簡含蓄。相較之下，中價位餐廳冗長的菜單上充斥著形容詞（「新鮮的」、「濃郁的」、「溫和的」、「酥脆的」、「軟嫩的」和「金黃色的」），而正面卻含糊的字眼，像是「好吃的」、「美味的」、「鹹香的」則被最平價的餐廳使用。高級餐廳想要他們的顧客預設食物會是新鮮、酥脆且美味的。因此，在中價位菜單上過度使用形容詞其實是一種補償心理、一種地位焦慮的徵兆，只有最平價的餐廳，在那邊，食物口味可能會遭質疑，才必須過度展現他們餐點的美味。
We are surrounded by the language of food, words that offer a window into our psyche, our finances and our society. Next time you choose an entree or tear open a packet of chips, read carefully—you may just be putting words in your mouth.
我們被食物的語言圍繞著，這些語言提供了一扇理解我們心理、財務和社會狀況的窗口。下次你在選擇主菜或撕開一包洋芋片時，請仔細閱讀－－你可能就正在把一些語言放進嘴巴裡。
- linguist [ˋlɪŋgwɪst] n.
語言學家
Professor Clark is a well-known linguist who has written several books about the structure, grammar, and history of the German language. - linguistics [lɪŋˋgwɪstɪks] n.
語言學
My brother is studying Japanese at college, and he is taking a course in linguistics as well. - psychology [saɪˋkɑlədʒɪ] n.
心理；心理學
There is an interesting article in this magazine about the psychology of different types of students just before taking an exam. - psyche [ˋsaɪkɪ] n.
心靈，精神
Maureen's recent trip seems to have had a positive effect on her psyche, and she is much more relaxed now. - trauma [ˋtrɔmə] n.
（感情等方面的）創傷
The young girl is suffering considerable mental trauma after years of physical and psychological abuse. - grief [grif] n.
悲痛，悲傷
Patrick was overcome with grief at his mother's funeral and cried all the time. - grieve [griv] v.
悲傷
Grieving for her pet dog, which was killed in a road accident, Susie couldn't face going to work. - mechanism [ˋmɛkə͵nɪzəm] n.
（處理某種狀況的）機制
This training program is a useful mechanism for improving staff performance in a company. - interaction [͵ɪntəˋrækʃən] n.
互動，交流
The interaction between Ms. Bond and her students is always warm and friendly. - interact [͵ɪntəˋrækt] v.
互動，相互影響
The summer camp will give you an opportunity to interact with lots of other young people and make new friends. - sophisticated [səˋfɪstɪ͵ketɪd] adj.
（行為或品味）成熟世故的
Julia has transformed from a shy teenager into an elegant and sophisticated young woman with a deep knowledge of art and music. - sensual [ˋsɛnʃʊəl] adj.
感官的
Some people seem only interested in the goal of sensual satisfaction rather than intellectual fulfillment. - seductively [sɪˋdʌktɪvlɪ] adv.
誘惑地
The expensive perfume was seductively packaged in a beautiful transparent box. - seductive [sɪˋdʌktɪv] adj.
誘惑的，誘人的
I think the woman on the radio has a very seductive voice, and I could listen to her all day. - seduce [sɪˋdjus] v.
誘惑
Seduced by the higher pay, Jennifer decided to go work for another company. - addiction [əˋdɪkʃən] n.
沉溺
Barney has been getting treatment from a therapist for his gambling addiction. - addicted [əˋdɪktɪd] adj.
入迷的，上癮的
My friend Julia seems to be addicted to horse riding as she goes every weekend. - addictive [əˋdɪktɪv] adj.
使人上癮的
This medicine should only be taken under the direction of a doctor because it can be addictive. - crave [krev] v.
渴望
Most very young children crave a lot of love and attention. - craving [ˋkrevɪŋ] n.
渴望
Unless you can bring your craving for sweets and chocolate under control, you are going to put on a lot of weight. - sin [sɪn] n.
罪惡
Some religions consider it a sin to give up your beliefs, and there may be severe punishment for doing so. - additional [əˋdɪʃən!] adj.
添加的，額外的
You can get a room that overlooks the beach if you pay an additional twenty dollars. - distinguishing [dɪˋstɪŋgwɪʃɪŋ] adj.
有區別的
Brian's most distinguishing characteristic is his voice, which tends to be quite loud. - distinguish [dɪˋstɪŋgwɪʃ] v.
區別，識別
It is easy to distinguish the male of this species from the female, as it is much more colorful. - sociologist [͵soʃɪˋɑlədʒɪst] n.
社會學家
Max Weber was a sociologist who developed theories about the role of religion in social development. - sociology [͵soʃɪˋɑlədʒɪ] n.
社會學
As a student of sociology, Maggie knows a lot about patterns of criminal behavior. - instructive [ɪnˋstrʌktɪv] adj.
有啟發性的，富含資訊的
One of my classmates sent me a link to some instructive videos to help me learn math better. - instruct [ɪnˋstrʌkt] v.
教導，訓練
Before we took our first dive, the trainer instructed us on how to use the scuba equipment. - instruction [ɪnˋstrʌkʃən] n.
指示
The instructions were easy to follow, and I soon assembled the equipment. - status [ˋstetəs] n.
地位，身分
Mrs. Green believes that moving to her new neighborhood has given her a higher social status. - implicit [ɪmˋplɪsɪt] adj.
不言明的
Dad didn't say he was disappointed, but it was implicit in the look on his face. - vague [veg] adj.
糢糊的
The directions Paul gave us to his house were vague, and we ended up getting lost on the way. - savory [ˋsevərɪ] adj.
鹹香可口的
For the party, Jennifer prepared some delicious sweet and savory snacks. - presuppose [͵prisəˋpoz] v.
預料，推定
This textbook presupposes a certain level of knowledge in the reader, so it is not for beginners. - compensation [͵kɑmpənˋseʃən] n.
補償，彌補
By way of compensation for losing Lucy's dictionary, Jeff bought her a new one as well as a box of chocolates. - compensate [ˋkɑmpən͵set] v.
補償，賠償
The company has agreed to compensate the owner of the house for the damage its truck caused to his garden fence. - delicacy [ˋdɛləkəsɪ] n.
美味，佳餚
The cafe is known for its tasty delicacies, especially the homemade cakes and cookies. - delicate [ˋdɛləkət] adj.
精美的
The table is covered with a delicate cloth made from the finest lace. - finance [faɪˋnæns] n.
財務狀況；金融，財政
Adam's finances have improved considerably with his promotion at work, and he can afford a bigger apartment.
Judith, who has had a long career in finance, is now an economic advisor to the government. - financial [faɪˋnænʃəl] adj.
財政的，金融的
Derek's financial problems began when he lost his job and had no income. - by no means
絕不，一點也不
It was by no means the man's first criminal offence, and he has been in prison before. - seize the day
把握光陰
Our grandfather is always telling us to seize the day and grab any opportunities we can. - put the blame on
責備...
Tony tried to put the blame on his sister, but his mother already knew that it was his fault. - distance oneself from...
撇清（關係）
The company vice-president tried to distance himself from the policy announced by the CEO, which he strongly disagreed with. - by extension
進而
The loss of his job was a severe blow to George, and by extension, to his whole family. - in question in doubt
有疑慮的
Ted's loyalty to his wife is not in question, so I don't believe the gossip about him.
